• Little Bugs Pose Big Problems for Indoor Comfort
• At Press Time -- Detroit Air Traffic Controllers Sue Over Mold
• Word on the Street
• The Particulate Problem With Laser Printers
• IICRC Moves On
• EPA Awards Schools for IAQ Promotion
• Ask Dr. Burge -- E. Coli and Enterobacter Were Recovered From Dust in a Client's Home. Does This Mean Sewage Contamination Has Occurred?
• Radon Corner -- Radon Mitigation -- How Low Can You Go?
• Editorial -- A Legal Perspective on Developing Green Building Requirements
• IAQ and Schools -- Improving IAQ and Saving Energy During the Heating Season
• Moisture Control -- Puddles and Pests

One black bug bled blue-black blood,
The other black bug bled blue.

Over the course of a few weeks, 5-year-old Duncan, whose surname has been withheld to protect his family’s identity, developed small red lesions on his torso, legs and arms. First, there were just a few. As each day passed, there were more. Duncan’s father, Andy, a surgeon in the U.S. Army, thought the lesions were an allergic reaction. Duncan was tested and came up positive for a wheat allergy. His mother, Caroline, was distraught by the diagnosis, but relieved that her son’s illness could be controlled.

That night, however, Duncan’s 2-year-old brother, Ian, woke up screaming.

When they flicked on the lights, Andy and Caroline were aghast at what they found – about a dozen tiny, brown insects scattering into the dark recesses of Ian’s bedding. The boy’s back was speckled with tiny dots of fresh blood.

Big brother Duncan’s mild wheat allergy wasn’t the problem in the house. The problem was bed bugs.
It’s common knowledge that bed bugs are a household pest, tiny insects that live in our beds and feed on our blood. But after nearly being completely eradicated in middle of the 20th century, leaving them more the subject of nursery rhymes than a detriment to indoor comfort, bed bugs are back – and in a big way.

The common bed bug (Cimex lectularius), the particular species best adapted to human hosts, can be found in any temperate environment around the world. Its relationship with mankind goes back to the beginning of history. The tiny (4–5 mm), reddish-brown oval insect feeds on blood, primarily human. Nocturnal, it attacks most often in the hours just before dawn, attracted by warmth and the carbon monoxide in exhaled air. It feeds by inserting two hollow tube-like mouth parts, one of which injects anesthetics and anticoagulants while its partner sucks blood. After feeding, the bed bug returns to its hiding place, usually in upholstery seams or cracks in a nearby wall.

A bite may not be noticed for hours after the fact due to the injected agents, and some people only react after repeated bites, but once the skin reacts, the resultant red welts can be extremely painful and irresistibly itchy. The most common targets are the lower limbs as these are the most likely to be exposed during sleep, and several bites in a row or cluster are common as the insect may be disrupted while feeding.

Pest Control Takes Notice
According to a fact sheet on the National Pest Management Association’s Web site, bed bugs have finally reached attention-grabbing levels for pest control companies – association members have reported bed bug calls 50 times more frequent than in previous years.

Statistics provided to IE Connections by Cindy Mannes, NPMA vice president, from a national survey show 47.9 percent of pest control companies offered bed bug control in 2006, a 33.4 percent increase from 2005. The largest percentage occurred in the Northeast, where 72.9 of companies reported offering bed bug control service.

Although no figures were provided for any previous period, the percentage of pest management professionals reported bed bug-related calls between 2000 and 2005 increased 71 percent. “Many are getting 10–50 and more a week,” Mannes wrote.

Research conducted by NPMA-member professionals between 2004 and 2005 showed hotels and motels to be the most frequent sources of calls – 37.2 percent – while apartments were responsible for 23 percent and single family dwellings 21.6. The “Other” category registered 16.2 percent, with college dormitories rating last at 2 percent.

Most calls – 52.3 percent – came from cities, with suburban areas accounting for 14.8 percent of calls. “Other,” which, according to Mannes, “could be anything from movie theaters to airplanes,” yielded 16.1 percent of calls. Vacation spots and resorts were responsible for 13.4 percent. Rural areas with low population density accounted for only 3.4 percent of calls.

Although bans on such pesticides as DDT are simple explanations for the insect explosion, experts point to recent changes in lifestyle among Americans, most notably greater international travel – 56.7 percent of respondent professionals believed this to be the case, whereas 25.1 percent believed new targeted treatment methods were simply exposing a problem long thought dormant.

In the past, insect invasions in the home would frequently be solved with the use of aerosol pesticides, spreading powerful poison agents throughout the treated area, including out-of-reach spaces. But when DDT and other such pesticides were deemed illegal and the health effects of residual spray application became known, exterminators and pest control professionals turned to other means, such as gel-based insecticides, to treat infestations.

While such measures work well against cockroaches and other pests, inducing them to voluntarily eat the substance of their own demise, bed bugs and other blood suckers are immune by virtue of one simple fact: they are incapable of eating gel.

In lieu of professional treatment, people can take remedial action on their own. Results vary unpredictably, but simple measures can alleviate and a small infestation in the short term.

Steam cleaners on mattresses and box springs and using high-temperature washers and dryers for bedclothes can kill individual insects and their eggs, even within the body of a mattress. Barrier methods, such as placing bed legs in cups of water or surrounding them with strong double-sided tape, or ensuring bedclothes do not touch the floor, are simple means by which bed bugs can be prevented from re-entering the bed itself. Spraying individual bugs with rubbing alcohol will kill them, but only to facilitate a short-term fix. Covering mattresses and box springs with plastic and sealing the edges can prevent the spread of bed bugs into treated space. Even with all those efforts, a pet or human guest can inadvertently reintroduce bed bugs simply by sitting on a treated bed.
To attain permanent extermination, professional treatment is advised.

Perception and Misconception
Public awareness is growing, perhaps feeding the increases in call volume as much as the actual incidences of infestation. A campaign initiated in 2005 by an advocacy group founded by the NPMA, the Professional Pest Management Alliance, that warned of the growing presence of bed bugs in homes yielded news media coverage around the country, including major network news stories. Although the efficacy of PPMA’s work on consumers is unknown, NPMA’s surveys demonstrate a public more concerned than informed.

In comparison to other types of pest infestation, such as rodents or cockroaches, 60.2 percent of pest control customers reported feeling “more upset” at the news, 35.7 percent the “same” and only 4.1 percent “less upset” in NPMA’s survey. Additionally, 11 percent of female homeowners felt bed bugs were “a threat to their families’ health.” When asked for words to describe their feelings, customers most often used terms such as “disgusted,” “panic,” “shame,” “dismay,” “sanitation,” and “thought they were a myth.”

These responses point to common misconceptions about bed bugs. The hard survey data point to the chief cause of bed bug infestation – dense living conditions, in which a single pregnant female bed bug can birth thousands of progeny capable of searching hundreds of feet for hosts. One or a small group of individuals inadvertently carried in a person’s clothing or luggage can lead to a serious problem back home.

Although a stigma of uncleanliness is attached to such problems, messiness, which provides the insects safe quarters for rest, is a much greater cause of widespread bed bug infestation. But keeping tidy is no guarantee of respite – bed bugs, which prefer close proximity to their hosts, can find safe haven in walls, gaps in molding or holes in furniture.

Despite the ability of bed bugs to carry viruses such as hepatitis and plague after a blood meal, there is no evidence they pass such infections on to their hosts. Aside from discomfort, the greatest health dangers posed by bites are infections and subsequent loss of immune-system function in the skin.

A Public Problem
People outside the pest control industry, like Andy and Caroline, are taking notice. It can be difficult not to notice rows of itchy red welts.

Radhika, whose surname has likewise been withheld, suspected some sort of biting insect when welts began appearing on her arms and legs shortly after moving into a new apartment building in May. Despite the building’s age, the unit was newly renovated and carpeted, and because neither her husband nor cats displayed any bite symptoms, she assumed an allergic reaction or mild, stress-induced illness. Near some of her bites, Radhika noticed other rashes. It wasn’t until several months later, when she discovered a small, round, dark-colored insect crawling on her bedroom wall, that she performed her own research.

“I knew they were bed bugs before I did my research,” Radhika said, citing the insect’s appearance and a prior inspection ordered by the apartment building’s management. This was particularly alarming to Radhika and her husband – the inspection, performed in August, revealed no signs of infestation.

“I wonder why he [the inspector] didn’t find it earlier. I’d been being bitten for months – I just didn’t know I was being bit.” She noted that it was shortly after her discovery that her husband reported painful, itchy welts on his ankles.

After taking up the issue with building management, another inspection was ordered. Following the advice of friends and some Internet resources, Radhika and her husband took short-term remedial action to at least halt the bugs’ spread. They used a commercial insecticide on bedroom surfaces and furniture outside the bedroom, and encased their mattress and box spring in plastic covers to prevent any further bed bug spread throughout their apartment. In the process, they discovered several individual insects in the box spring’s seams and bagged them for analysis by the inspector.

According to Radhika, the inspector felt no need to further inspect their home after seeing the bags. “He said, ‘Yep, you have bed bugs,” she related. After informing Radhika that the apartment would be treated, with arrangements to be made through the building’s management, the inspector left.

Having educated herself about bed bugs prior to the inspection, Radhika described her feelings as “annoyed and pissed.” “They [the bed bugs] were clearly there for the first inspection.” She pointed out bites evident on her arms in photos from the couple’s recent wedding.

“We think they’re only in the bedroom, though,” she said with relief.

And despite being glad the apartment would be treated, she expressed worry about the possibility of temporary relocation and reiterated her frustrations. “We clearly didn’t bring them here. We didn’t have them before.” Radhika wondered about the possibility of building overcrowding as a cause. She also allowed that the unit’s renovation, including carpeting over floors that had previously been hardwood, may have contributed.

“But I’m just glad I’m not sick,” she said.

Caitlin Heller, writer of The Bedbug Blog, has been chronicling her own problem with bed bugs for over two years while providing a forum for others suffering from infestation.

After enduring a long bout of bed bug infestation in her home, Heller began blogging, as she explains in the blog’s first post, “to document my experience should I ever need the information (god forbid) in a court case or to request compensation for my losses, and also to try to help others who are dealing with a similar problem ...” after first sharing her experiences on her other personal blog.

From its outset, The Bedbug Blog recounted Heller’s up-and-down path to a bed bug-free home. Shortly after the initial post, she believed her ordeal to be over and planned to put the blog on hiatus, posting updates and information for readers.

Heller stated in one post, “I can only assume that there will be a reinfestation someday, being that the original infestation was so widespread in my apartment building to begin with.” She was right – a few weeks later, bites began to reappear.

Since then, Heller has endured repeated infestation relapses, each time furnishing accounts of discovery, treatments and hope. A growing readership of well-wishers and fellow sufferers led to posts of bed bug information and news, including advice on remedial action.

The Bedbug Blog’s most recent post, dated August 19, reflects Heller’s accumulated knowledge: “The exterminator came on Wednesday last week and I think that we’ve seen the last of the bedbugs in this apartment for a long, long time.

“Contributing to the quick and painless process this time around was the fact that I caught the signs early and I found a live one right away, after only three bites. I had an exterminator in exactly two weeks after getting the first bite and he was exceptionally thorough. We did all the laundry, even though it was only for three bites. And now it has been nearly a week and a half since I last got any bites.

“I’m crossing my fingers that this is it once and for all, but I’m grateful that it didn’t get to be as bad as the first time. It says a lot for being informed and getting a professional in to do the job as soon as possible.”

Aftermath
Since the pest control inspector’s evaluation of their apartment, Radhika and her husband have tried to create as normal an environment as possible for themselves and their cats. But as of press time, they are yet to be informed of their building’s plan to exterminate the pests.

“I don’t know when it might be,” Radhika said, “but I hope they can do it when we go away next week.” She noted that the family pets, for their safety, will make the trip as well.
Until an extermination is carried out, Radhika and her husband plan on using plastic covers, commercial pesticides and basic remedial actions, such as isolating their bed from the rest of the room, to curb any bed bug activity in their home.

Andy and Caroline have been aggressively fighting their infestation for more than two months. After an initial treatment, which required them to clear the house for 24 hours, failed, they ordered a stronger dose of chemicals and vacated to a hotel for 10 days. They also threw away thousands of dollars’ worth of bedding, mattresses and upholstered furnishings.

During their extended hotel stay, the lesions on Ian and Duncan healed. But since returning home in mid-September, the family has consistently found live bed bugs. Caroline told IE Connections, “We are on a program where our house will be treated every few weeks, and we have to evacuate at least one night each time because the chemicals are strong. This will last several months. It has cost us dearly, but we just
want our clean home back.”

Butter flavoring in microwavable popcorn can neatly spice up a TV-time snack. But since the identification of “popcorn lung,” bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome, in 2001, it has become a known health risk.

Wayne Watson of Centennial, Ohio would no doubt have liked to know about it. Watson, whose past consumption of microwave popcorn could conservatively be described as “heavy,” took up respiratory difficulties with a doctor, Cecile Rose, at the National Jewish Medical and Research Center in Denver. Rose’s battery of tests only revealed an inhaled agent as the the cause of Watson’s problems, but a hunch led her to ask if he ate a lot of popcorn. It all added up.

As reported in a new brief from the American Thoracic Society Journal, Dutch researchers investigating BOS isolated and identified diacetyl as the chemical agent they believe may be the cause of popcorn lung.
A population of workers in a chemical plant producing diacetyl, a major component of butter flavoring, were examined by the research team led by Frits G.B.G.J. van Rooy M.D. “Our study found a cluster of [previously unknown] BOS cases” in the plant, van Rooy is quoted as saying.

“This is the first study where cases of BOS were found in a chemical plant producing diacetyl.”
Although van Rooy’s team could not rule out the contributory role of other chemicals in the development of BOS, the results of their study significantly narrows possible culprits to diacetyl and the components and byproducts of its manufacture.

How the research affects lawsuits against flavoring manufacturers over diacetyl exposure and popcorn lung remains to be seen.

Since the study’s release, U.S. Senators Edward Kennedy, D–Mass. and Patty Murray, D–Wash. have written the Food and Drug Administration, the Centers for Disease Control and the Labor Department to urge action against the future use of diacetyl. Joining the call against the Department of Labor were unions led by the AFL-CIO and Teamsters.

Surprisingly, a key trade leader supports restrictions. The Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association has come out in support of diacetyl-use guidelines proposed in the House of Representatives. The association also stated on its Web site that the survey findings “[do] not suggest a risk from eating” microwave popcorn, but that inhaling steam from “several bags of heavily butter-flavored microwave popcorn each day” could be hazardous.

Dr. Rose apparently agreed even before Van Rooy’s team released its findings.

PENNSYLVANIA TAKES ON PESTERING SCHOOL PESTS
Good indoor air quality in schools has become a hot topic for educators, administrators, parents – even the Environmental Protection Agency. Whereas people in the past were ignorant as to the potential health threats of mold, soil gas and pathogens released by common products, now new threats are swiftly dealt with when recognized.

A press release from the Integrated Pest Management program at Penn State University details new causes for concern – pests and pesticides – and programs designed to assist school nurses with the implementation of sound IAQ plans.

A school health consultant with the Pennsylvania Department of Health, Rosemary Moyer, MSN, CRNP, said in the release, “School nurses are charged with advising school administrative, maintenance and sanitation personnel on changes needed in the environment to make schools healthy and safe places for students and staff. ... Many people don’t realize pest infestations and pesticides used in schools and other urban dwellings can result in unhealthy indoor environments.”

According to the release, the use of IPM can reduce both pest populations and the use of pesticides in school environments. Of particular note for the parents of asthma-suffering schoolchildren is the ability to curb or eliminate dander and pathogenic rodent and cockroach droppings and allergens associated with them.
Moyer, speaking of PDH’s Division of School Health, said, “The staff provides yearly trainings and updates for both new and current school nurses to provide them with the information they need to ensure a healthy school environment ... IPM is included in these trainings, as all public schools in Pennsylvania are required by law to have an IMP plan in place to manage pests in school buildings and on school grounds.”

In addition to IPM, Moyer encourages school nurses to participate in the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture’s ChemSweep Pesticide Disposal Program, in which chemicals like outdated pesticides are picked up for proper disposal.

AIR POLLUTION LINKED TO PREMATURE BIRTH
Research funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences and the Southern California Environmental Health Sciences Center indicates that air pollution leads to an increased risk of premature delivery in pregnant women.

In the first large-scale air pollution study of its kind, the study gathered information on over 2,500 women who gave birth in 2003. By using personal interviews to eliminate other causes of premature birth, such as smoking and alcohol use, the research team determined that women living in regions of with high levels of carbon monoxide or fine-particle pollution were 10–25 percent more likely to deliver their babies pre-term. The numbers skewed particularly toward women exposed to polluted air during the first trimester and final weeks of pregnancy.
Although the study’s focus was on air pollution in the wider environment, the targeted culprits – carbon monoxide and fine airborne particles – can be just as prevalent indoors as out.

DEPRESSING NEWS ON HOUSEHOLD MOLD
A study led by Brown University epidemiologist Edmond Shenassa, the first of its kind outside the United Kingdom, has found a link between moldy homes and depression.

As Science Daily reports, Shenassa and his team originally set out to debunk UK studies that had found just such a connection. “We thought that once we statistically accounted for factors that could clearly contribute to depression – things like employment status and crowding – we would see any link vanish,” he said.

“But the opposite was true. We found a solid association between depression and living in a damp, moldy home.”
However, the results of Shenassa’s data analysis of nearly 6,000 European adults don’t go so far as to call mold an actual cause of depression. The connection found is likely driven by two factors – perceived lack of control in the household environment and mold-related health problems. “Physical health, and perceptions of control, are linked with an elevated risk for depression,” Shenassa said.

As Shenassa told Science Daily, “What the study makes clear is the importance of housing as indicator of health, including mental health. Healthy homes can promote healthy lives.”

According to a study published in the American Chemical Society’s journal, “Environmental Science and Technology,” laser printers in our homes and offices may be spewing potentially hazardous toner-like materials into the air.

Titled “Particle Emissions Characteristics of Office Printers” and authored by Congrong He, Lidia Morawska and Len Taplin on behalf of the International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health at the Queensland University of Technology and the Queensland Department of Public Works, the study conclude, in the words of San Francisco Chronicle writer Jane Kay, that “if you work near certain models of laser printers, you might be breathing the same amount of ultra-fine particle pollution as if a smoker were puffing away in the next cubicle.”

“When inhaled, the particles – tiny flecks between 100 and 1,000 times smaller than the thickness of a human hair – can work their way deep into the lung, leading to heart and lung disease, scientists say,” Kay’s story continues.
Study author Morawska told Kay, “Even very small concentrations [of particles] can be related to health hazards. Where the concentrations are significantly elevated means there this potentially a considerable hazard.”

As Morawska recounted, the team was measuring levels of air pollutants inside and outside office spaces. They found indoor pollutant levels five times higher during working than non-working hours. Investigation of potential sources led them to laser printers.

As the study’s introduction explains, it “investigated particle number and PM2.5 emissions from printers using the [air quality monitors] TSI SMPS, TSI CPC 3022, and 3025A TSI P-Trak and DustTrak. The monitoring of particle characteristics in a large open-plan office showed that particles generated by printers can significantly (p = 0.01) affect the submicrometer particle number concentration levels in the office.”

Using an office building as their field environment, the researchers tested 62 printers of 42 different models – 34 manufactured by HP, five by Ricoh, two by Toshiba and one by Canon.

“An investigation of the submicrometer particle emissions produced by each of the 62 printers used in the office building was also conducted and based on the particle concentrations in the immediate vicinity of the printers, after a short printing job, the printers were divided into four classes: non-emitters, and low, medium, and high emitters. It was found that approximately 60% of the investigated printers did not emit submicrometer particles and of the 40% that did emit particles, 27% were high particle emitters,” reads the study.

“Particle emission characteristics from three different laser printers were also studied in an experimental chamber, which showed that particle emission rates are printer-type specific and are affected by toner coverage and cartridge age.”

After explaining prior work done on printer emissions the study’s purpose is stated as to “(1) simultaneously monitor submicrometer particle number concentration for 48 [hours], in a large open-plan office, as well as outdoors, to assess the potential impact of indoor activities on indoor particle concentrations; (2) measure concentrations of submicrometer particles in the immediate vicinity of operating printers in a multilevel office building; (3) measure particle characteristics and determine particle emission rates from three different laser printers operating in an experimental chamber; and (4) assess the potential impact of various types of printers as particle emission sources.”

According to the study, the building was in a low- to mid-level traffic density area “about 120m from a busy freeway.” Each of its six floors was serviced by HVAC units. Printers and photocopiers were located throughout; smoking was prohibited indoors.

All printers were tested at a distance of about 2 feet. Based on their results, each model was placed in one of the four categories, based on emission volume. The study’s results can be seen in the accompanying sidebar.
For control, the researchers tested one machine from each category in an experimental flow-through chamber, utilizing HEPA filters to ensure the absence of outside particulate invasion, at the university’s International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health.

“In the chamber,” Morawska told Key, “we were able to look at the effect of the toner and see whether the age of the cartridge made a difference. Emissions were higher with a newer cartridge and when there was a greater density of toner coverage.”

“While a more comprehensive study is still required, to provide a better database of printer emission rates, as well as their chemical characteristics, the results from this study imply that submicrometer particle concentration levels in an office can be reduced by a proper choice of the printers,” the researchers wrote.

Based on their research, they have called on the Australian government to consider regulating laser printer emission levels. “By all means, this is an important indoor source of pollution,” Morawska said. “There should be regulations.”

Until such regulations are in place, Morawska recommended ensuring proper ventilation in offices and homes in which laser printers are used. “The closer to the source – in this case the printer – the higher hazard, as the concentrations are higher,” she warned.

The actual composition of particulate matter, regardless of size, determines health effects, but exactly what that composition may be remains a mystery. According to Kay’s story, HP has been working with scientists to study printer emissions for almost two years, but the company “hasn’t been able to determine the chemical composition of the ultra-fine particles, nor has it been able to trace the source in the printing system.” Company spokeswoman Emily Horn told Kay that the particles are so tiny that it’s difficult to collect a sample large enough to analyze.

In a statement issued in response to contact by PC World, HP wrote: “HP is currently reviewing the Queensland University of Technology research on particle emission characteristics of office printers. Vigorous tests under standardized operating conditions are an integral part of HP’s research and development and its strict quality control procedures.

“As part of these quality controls, HP assesses its LaserJet printing systems, original HP print cartridges and papers for dust release and possible material emissions to ensure compliance with applicable international health and safety requirements.”

Nonetheless, HP also took to the offensive. In a statement included in an article at Photonics.com, HP refuted the study. “We do not believe there is a link between printer emissions and any public health risk. Specifically, HP does not see an association between printer use by customers and negative health effects ... [HP] hopes to learn more from the study authors about how products were chosen for the study, how ranges were determined given no standards exist and many other factors that could have influenced the results.

“Testing of ultrafine particles is a very new scientific discipline. There are no indications that ultrafine particle (UFP) emissions from laser printing systems are associated with special health risks. The nature and chemical composition of such particles – whether from a laser printer or from a toaster – cannot be accurately characterized by analytical technology. However, many experts believe that many of the UFPs found in common household and office products are not discrete solid particles, but may be condensation products or small droplets created during thermal processes.”

One worry, based on past studies of indoor pollutants, is that ozone, which can be emitted from machines like printers, could mix with volatile organic compounds already in the air to create a formaldehyde-like chemical, according to Kay. Although Morawska’s team did not focus on ozone and whether it may contribute to particle emissions, HP believes current technology prevents printers from emitting the gas.

SIDEBAR:

The Australian study tested 62 separate laser printers of 42 different models: 34 manufactured by HP, five by Ricoh, two by Toshiba and one by Canon.

Printer tests showed levels of ultra-fine particle pollution:

High-level emitters
HP Color LaserJet 4650dn
HP Color LaserJet 5550dtn
HP Color LaserJet 8550N
HP LaserJet 1320N
HP LaserJet 1320n
HP LaserJet 2420dn
*HP LaserJet 4200dtn
HP LaserJet 4250n (old cartridge)
HP LaserJet 4250n (new cartridge)
HP LaserJet 5(a) (further study needed)
*HP LaserJet 8000DN
HP LaserJet 8150N
Toshiba Studio 450

Mid-level emitters
HP LaserJet 1020
HP LaserJet 4200dtn

Low-level emitters
Canon IRC6800
HP LaserJet 5M
HP LaserJet 9000dn
Ricoh CL3000DN

Non-emitters
HP Color LaserJet 4550DN
HP Color LaserJet 8500DN
HP LaserJet 2200DN
HP LaserJet 2300dtn
HP LaserJet 4 plus
HP LaserJet 4000N
HP LaserJet 4000TN
HP LaserJet 4050N
HP LaserJet 4050TN
HP LaserJet 4si
HP LaserJet 5(b) (further study needed)
HP LaserJet 5000n
HP LaserJet 5100tn
HP LaserJet 5N
HP LaserJet 5si
HP LaserJet 5si/NX
HP LaserJet 8000DN
HP LaserJet 8150DN
Ricoh Aficio 2022
Ricoh Aficio 3045
Ricoh Aficio 3245C
Ricoh Aficio CC3000DN
Toshiba Studio 350

*possible high emitter

Source: International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, as printed in the August 1 issue of the San Francisco Chronicle, http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/08/01/PRINTERS.TMP

Shortly after dismissing a similar move by a former member of the committee formed to revise its S520 standard, the Institute of Inspection, Cleaning and Restoration Certification rejected an appeal by another former member.
Elisa Larkin, who served on the Standards Committee until she resigned in October, 2006, alleged four specific procedural violations, resolved informally from the original 14, during her appeals hearing on August 23. She was informed of the Appeals Panel’s decision on August 30.

Aided in the hearing by former fellow appellant Carl Grimes, Larkin’s allegations focused on what she perceived to be violations of IICRC Policies and Procedures and Essential Actions for the American National Standards Institute. According to a copy of the panel’s finding provided to IE Connections, Larkin’s four remaining complaints included allegations the Consensus Body meetings were not open for attendance; that a “dominant coalition” had been formed on the committee by allowing two or more people from the same organization to serve as chairs; that “[Consensus Body] meeting minutes were not maintained in a consistent manner, sometimes not recorded, on occasion created based upon ‘memory’, and often not submitted to the [Consensus Body] for approval;” and that the use of the “Indoor Environmental Professional” and “IEP” labels is a violation of IICRC and ANSI rules regarding patents.

All allegations were dismissed by the Appeals Panel, chaired by Jim Pearson. “The decision herein was approved by a majority of the Appeals Panel,” reads the decision’s cover letter.

Findings ranged from no evidence of improper procedure to satisfactory prior remedial action. Even before the official decision was issued, Larkin filed an ethics complaint with ANSI and an appeal to IICRC on the panel’s procedures. She was unavailable for comment.

S520 Standard Issued for Peer Review
One day after IICRC officially notified Larkin of the Appeals Panel’s decision, the August 31 issue of “ANSI Standards Action” included notification that S520 was available for peer review. Those choosing to order a copy of the standard were instructed to forward comments to Larry Cooper, IICRC standards consultant, by October 15.
“The S520 is being reviewed for the Substantive Changes from the Public review previously done,” Cooper wrote in an e-mail, referring to the original peer review for S520 in 2003. “These changes are highlighted in the document. ... The second round is for any substantive changes from the first round.”

The move came as a surprise to some. On August 30, a posting appeared on the Yahoo Healthy Indoors message board by Scott Armour of Armour Applied Science LLC listing the notice from “ANSI Standards Action” with the note, “This is a surprise.”

In e-mail exchanges with IE Connections, Grimes pointed to a statement from Pearson, dated the same day, that “it's going to be a while because we are still working on things like format, the Glossary, etc. ...”
Other interested parties attempted to receive the S520 draft document from Cooper shortly after the peer review announcement, only to be told the standard would be ready “shortly” and that they would receive instructions on how to download. On September 5, IICRC released instructions to those who had requested copies with a notice that the comment period would be “September 5th, 2007 until October 20th, 2007. You will have 45 days to fully review the document.”

Cooper explained, “There was [sic] some concerns that we did not send out the document until after Labor Day weekend.” After citing a personal matter for the delay, he continued, “We then extended the time 5 days to make certain that everyone had the full amount of time for the review.”

When asked to confirm the date of submission of S520 to ANSI, Cooper replied, “August 31, 2007.”

Aaron Trippler, government affairs director of the American Industrial Hygiene Association, remarked in a telephone interview with IE Connections that, in following with his prior comments in the first round of peer review of S520, he intends to do the same with this revision.

Trippler noted that although he finds the peer review process “confusing,” he felt assured that his original comments had been considered and praised IICRC for keeping in close contact with him. Additionally, he noted being invited to speak to a committee meeting about his concerns.

In both the original draft and the current revision, Trippler remarked that his comments focus on the Indoor Environmental Professional designation and laboratory accreditation, saying that IEP qualifications should be more precise and that lab accreditation needs to be clarified as far as sampling for mold.

EPA Awards Schools for IAQ Promotion
By Tiffany Dial

Research over the years has determined that indoor air pollution can be extremely harmful. Infants, children, the elderly and persons with chronic diseases are most susceptible. Since most children typically spend a large amount of time in classrooms, they are often exposed to very high levels of air pollutants, including mold, pathogens, chemical fumes and gases in classrooms. According to a Government Accounting Office report, 20 percent of the United States’ 80,000 public schools have indoor air quality problems. This epidemic has grown to such proportions that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has ranked indoor air pollution as a high priority public health risk.

To that end the EPA is spearheading safe IAQ in schools across the country with its IAQ Tools for Schools program, designed as a resource to assist schools in ensuring good IAQ through the implementation of basic management practices and procedures. As a bonus, the TfS program offers a multi-tiered awards program that recognizes schools leading the way in maintaining healthy IAQ environments.

The first such recognition, the Great Start Award, simply acknowledges the start of an IAQ program. Next is the Leadership Award, presented when a school has taken further action. These awards are given on a rolling basis and have no deadline for submission.

The next step up for TfS participants is the Excellence Award, which can only be obtained by meeting special criteria. To qualify, a letter of commitment, the application, a narrative section and supplemental materials such as testimonials and articles, must be submitted. Following that is the Model of Sustained Excellence Award, which has similar criteria but is only available to schools that have received a prior Excellence Award. The Model of Sustained Excellence Award salutes schools that have demonstrated proper IAQ management over the years.

A fairly new award, the Special Achievement Award, requires nomination. It recognizes outstanding work toward good IAQ that does not meet the requirements of its more prestigious partners.

The most prestigious award is the National Excellence Award, which honors exemplary work in IAQ management programs. According to Dave Rowson of the EPA, “The Excellence Award is there to recognize the senior management support once it’s in place, and you’re beginning to generate quantifiable results as it relates to a variety of areas.” The award is presented each year to school districts with the highest IAQ management performances. Schools receiving this high honor have demonstrated high commitment to ensuring the wellness of students, faculty and the entire community.

Great benefits come with receiving the TfS National Excellence Award. Winners are recognized at the IAQ Tools for Schools National Symposium in Washington, D.C. and are presented with an engraved crystal statue. They also receive national media attention and invitations to various public speaking and mentoring opportunities.

The Montgomery County Public School System in Montgomery County, Md. was the recipient of the Excellence Award in 2001. According to school representative Sean Yarup, “It [the Excellence Award] established instant credibility among the teaching staff and the school community. Once you earn the credibility and trust, it goes a long way.”

Yarup also mentioned that winning the award allowed the school district to “get administrative support.” They also received $3.2 million in operating costs. Addtionally, MCPS is “seen as a mentor to other local school districts. We’ve been asked to share our program with local counties. Even Andrews Air Force Base wanted to see what we did.”

Chris Skerlec of the School District of Palm Beach County, Fla., who received the award in 2003, added that after winning the award, “it became much easier for us to get funds, and we could go to administrations to ask for money and things. ... We got credibility. We also got training for indoor air quality managers. These are full-time staff.”

Patrick Wolfe, a representative of Portland Public Schools in Oregon said, “What receiving the award did for us is up-leveling the cooperation we’re receiving with this program. ... The recognition has been wonderful and enabled us to fold that into our outreach.”

Receiving the National Excellence Award also strengthens PTA relationships. Parents and teachers are delighted when their school wins an Excellence Award because it shows that the school has taken a proactive approach in maintaining an environment that promotes growth and development. Yarup stated that before getting the award, “the PTA was quite concerned that we didn’t have an IAQ program. Now we work with the PTA.” He also added that MCPS has gained reassurance from the community.

Rowson agreed. “They will readily trust you and allow you to control the dynamics.” Wolfe described how winning the award in 2006 has improved PPS’s relationship with the PTA. “It’s gone a long way in improving the atmosphere to showing we’re proactive.”

After winning the TfS National Excellence Award, schools should continue diligent work in maintaining healthy indoor environments – Yarup said that MCPS replaces HVAC and carpet and has a team that addresses IAQ problems that may arise.

PPS has developed a checklist aimed at ensuring IAQ. “We used all of those approaches to try to increase the awareness ... not only to improve the services, but to document and communicate changes,” said Wolfe.
The EPA is accepting applications for the National Excellence Award until October 8, 2007. They invite schools to join them in demonstrating that effective school IAQ management programs can improve the health, satisfaction and performance of the millions of children and adults who work and learn in our nation’s schools.

To obtain more information about EPA’s IAQ TfS National Excellence Award, or to apply, visit http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schools/excellenceaward.html.

Dr. Harriet Burge
Director of Aerobiology
EMLab P&K
San Bruno, Calif.

Not necessarily. If there is no history of toilet overflow or childhood accidents, the bacteria have most likely been brought into the house from outdoor soil or have been shed from indoor pets.

Soil is an abundant reservoir for all sorts of microorganisms. It contains between 100 million and 1 billion bacteria per teaspoonful. There are more bacterial species in one spoonful than there are plant species in the United States.

Bacteria live throughout the soil, but are especially abundant around the roots of plants and on the surface of fungal hyphae so they can take advantage of the nutrients, especially carbon compounds, released by these organisms.

The bacteria play essential roles in soil. Most decay non-living organic material, making it available to plants and other organisms. One group, the actinobacteria, formerly called actinomycetes, is especially good at degrading lignin and cellulose.

A second role for soil bacteria is to turn inorganic compounds into organic ones. The best known of these bacteria are those that “fix” atmospheric nitrogen, making it available as ammonium ions the bacteria, as well as plants and animals, can use to make amino acids. Some bacteria in soil are plant pathogens, generally causing galls or plant tumors on the roots.

PH is the primary factor that controls the nature of soil bacterial populations. Acidic soil has fewer species than alkaline soils; thus, soil in the Amazon has fewer bacterial species than soil in Tucson, Arizona. The populations present depend on many other factors as well, including the presence and types of plants, the amount of water, the types of minerals present and many others. As is usual with living populations, these factors are all interactive.

Given the number of bacterial species in soil, it would be surprising if one did not find representatives of the enteric group as well as other potentially disease-causing microorganisms. Enterobacter, for example, is extremely common in soil and especially abundant around the roots of plants. E. coli is also common since it is excreted by most mammals (i.e., moles, groundhogs, deer, dogs, cats, etc.).

Soil microorganisms enter the house on the feet of human and animal occupants and, less commonly, from soil aerosols. Some people remove their shoes before entering their homes. Pets that go outdoors also bring in soil organisms – remember that both cats and dogs love to roll in the dirt. Soil covered with grass or plantings or even mulch does not generally become airborne. However, if construction activities disturb these protective surfaces, clouds of soil particles and microorganisms can enter the air and enter houses.

In general, these bacteria are not harmful. Remember that they are always present and the human body has excellent defenses against most micro-organisms. The rare cases of illness associated with specific strains of E. coli result from unusual strains that have learned to produce a toxin. These strains are generally found in areas heavily contaminated by manure or among crops for which manure is used as fertilizer. Washing fruits and vegetables and thoroughly cooking meat, especially when ground, is the best way of preventing illness. Hand washing is also extremely important, especially for young children and the elderly, and especially when there are pets in the home.

Dr. Harriet Burge is director of aerobiology at EMLab P&K and associate professor and director of the microbiology laboratory at Harvard School of Public Health. Widely considered the leading expert in IAQ, Burge pioneered the field more than 30 years ago. She has served as a member of three National Academy of Sciences committees for IAQ, including as vice chair of the Committee on the Health Effects of Indoor Allergens.

To submit a question to Dr. Burge, write to her by e-mail at askdrburge@emlab.com. All questions posed to Burge will receive a reply, although space limitations prevent us from publishing them all. By submitting a question, you agree to have your question and its answer published in a future edition of IE Connections.

Douglas Kladder
Director
Center for Environmental Research & Training
Colorado Springs, Colo.

The Radon List Server has been buzzing with posts regarding how low radon levels can be reduced in homes. This comes as a result of a review of portions of an ASTM document (ASTM E 2121) that deals with radon mitigation techniques and suggests a goal of ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). ALARA is not a new concept – it is typically used in a considerable number of radiation control programs based upon the linear-no-threshold risk model.

Why ALARA VS 4.0 pCi/L?
For those familiar with radon, the EPA and surgeon general guidance of less than 4.0 pCi/L has been with us for many years. In fact, it has become the no, no-go, level for removing real estate transaction contingencies that has fueled the expanding radon testing and mitigation industry since the mid-1980s. At the time the 4.0 pCi/L guidance was suggested, it was felt this number, derived from experiences in mitigating homes with uranium mill tailing concerns, was a technologically achievable objective. However, that was 20-some years ago and technology has certainly improved.

However, when one reviews scientific studies supporting the EPA’s position on radon, one can easily see that roughly two-thirds of the annual radon-induced lung cancer cases come from exposures to levels less than 4.0 pCi/L. This means, contrary to popular belief, that one is not safe if annual radon levels are at 2.0 or 3.0 pCi/L. Obviously, since there is a large risk at levels below 4.0 pCi/L, it is logical that newer programs would consider pushing indoor radon levels to less than that level, especially in light of improved practices in the radon mitigation industry.

Why Not ALARA?
On the surface, ALARA would seem to be a reasonable goal with respect to public safety – and it is. However, there are considerable concerns in the radon mitigation industry, which bases its success (and contract closure) when post-mitigation tests are below 4.0 pCi/L. On the other hand, if ALARA was adopted as a criterion, the success of the mitigation becomes more arbitrary, which in turn can increase long-term liability for contractors. For example, if a mitigator reduces the radon levels to 3.0 pCi/L on behalf of the seller of the property, the buyer and subsequent owner of the property might feel as though the contractor just didn’t go far enough – especially if they subsequently develop lung cancer.

This isn’t to say that radon reduction can’t be achieved to levels below 4.0 pCi/L; in fact, many posts on the list server provided data on such reductions. However, one cannot always be sure of achieving lower reductions without, in some cases, some herculean efforts.

Is ALARA Achievable?
The most commonly utilized technology for radon reduction is Active Soil Depressurization (ASD). This methodology replaced ventilation approaches in the early 1990s due to its ability to achieve large reductions in significantly elevated houses. It functions by essentially creating a vacuum in the subgrade beneath a slab or beneath a plastic barrier in earthen crawlspaces. By doing so, it draws the radon from the soil before it can enter the living space of the home. This is very effective in that it applies a higher vacuum on the soil that the structure typically does, collects the radon gas and exhausts it to the atmosphere well away from openings into the structure.

Although ASD is a very simple and elegant solution, it does have its limitations, especially in existing homes in which subgrade conditions may prevent the system from treating the entire slab area. This would be the case with varying soil compaction, the presence of grade beams or inaccessible crawlspaces where membrane edge sealing is not as perfect as one would desire. Generally, and despite these obstacles, reductions to less than 4.0 pCi/L are achievable. But if the objective is to get below 4.0 pCi/L, as suggested by ALARA, these reductions will become ever increasing challenges to the mitigation contractor.

There are those in the field who believe ALARA is indeed achievable, but it will likely require additional approaches other than just ASD. ASD is a very effective tool and can significantly reduce radon levels. However, it cannot treat small amounts of radon that can emanate from building materials or enter from a water supply, in addition to small amounts of radon that escape the clutches of an ASD system.

So What is Needed to Achieve ALARA?
Likely, what is needed to achieve ALARA are techniques that supplement ASD, rather than just bigger fans and more suction points. ASD is certainly the first method of choice. It is like a 12-gauge shotgun in its effectiveness. But to get the remaining radon bad guys, one may need some sharp shooting. For those in the indoor air quality industry, you know what these sharp shooters are. They are things like fresh air make-up, as suggested by ASHRAE 62.2. They can also come in the forms of balanced air handling systems or filters to reduce radon decay products after the radon levels have been substantially reduced by ASD techniques.

The problem with these supplemental techniques is the radon industry often falls into a self made trap of only utilizing one technology. If ASD doesn’t fully reduce levels, then let’s use more ASD by adding more fans and suction points, rather than considering other approaches that may require the skills of other professionals in the HVAC or IAQ field.

So, I would pose that if ALARA is to be a goal, the radon industry will need to embrace other technologies and expand the types of service providers that can assist in the overall goal of radon reduction.
Of course, if one is to achieve levels lower than 4.0 pCi/L, one needs to have confidence in a measurement device’s ability to measure in these low ranges. But that is another story and deserves to be a subject of a future column.

As always, who says there is nothing new in radon?
Douglas Kladder is director of the Center for Environmental Research and Technology Inc. He can be reached by e-mail at dougkladdr@aol.com or by phone at (719) 477-1714.

David M. Governo Esq., Managing Partner
Marianne E. Brown Esq.
Governo Law Firm LLC
Boston, Mass.

All professionals would appreciate assurances that they will not be sued for professional negligence if they do their job well, even if something goes wrong. Generally speaking, the legal standard governing indoor air quality professionals is essentially the same as the standard governing medical doctors, lawyers and other professionals: They must follow the standards of a reasonable professional, similarly situated, in their communities. Perfection is not required; not every mistake on the job constitutes malpractice.

Specifically, this means the IAQ professional should have a working knowledge of the standards that govern the job, exercise sound judgment in following those standards and keep up with developments in the profession.
Above all else, always make sure you have a clear understanding of the job you have been hired to perform, and if you have a written contract, read it carefully. Make sure all the terms are agreed upon, including the specific scope of work, and think carefully before you provide your client with any extra promises or assurances. For example, if you promise in your contract that you will follow the most “stringent standards” or use the “highest standard of excellence,” you may be held to those higher standards if anything goes wrong. In addition, if you promise that a specific code or standard will be followed, you must take that promise seriously.

There are numerous emerging green building standards that may apply to the IAQ professional. By and large, these standards are being developed by industry groups, such as the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. As new voluntary standards become accepted as the national consensus governing the industry, they will set the standard governing professional negligence of IAQ professionals – regardless of whether they are actually passed into law and become part of the building code in your community. Therefore, it is important to know these standards, and to understand whether they apply to your next job.

ASHRAE, the U.S. Green Building Council and the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America have developed a new standard for high performance of green buildings, the Proposed Standard 189, “Standard for the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings.” This new standard will govern new commercial buildings and major renovation projects. In addition to addressing energy efficiency and environmental impact, it will address indoor environmental quality.

Its preliminary draft suggests that the standard will change existing IAQ standards for ventilation and possibly require that supply outdoor air exceed the minimum requirements of ASHRAE 62.1-2007 “Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.” Standard 189 may also require a management plan for IAQ. We may also see recommendations or requirements for low-emitting materials and the use of carbon dioxide sensors in high use areas.

Standard 189 is being developed using the U.S. Green Building Council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design rating system. The standard is intended to be accredited by the American National Standards Institute so it may become incorporated into building codes. Standard 189 is expected to be finalized in late 2007 or early 2008.

Standard 189 will not operate in a vacuum, as other IAQ standards exist and are also under development and review. ASTM International, originally known as the American Society for Testing and Materials, recently published its third edition of “ASTM Standards on Indoor Air Quality.” These voluntary standards were developed by ASTM International’s Subcommittee D22.05 and provide guidance for the sampling and analysis of indoor air. Again, it is important to remain abreast of when these standards become accredited by ANSI and enacted into building codes in your community. The IAQ professional will need to be on the lookout for conflicts among these standards and know which applies in a given situation.

The U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration has its own indoor air quality standards governing occupational health and environment control and almost half the states have adopted their own standards and enforcement policies similar to OSHA. The Indoor Environments Division, located within the Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, under the Office of Air and Radiation, is responsible for implementing the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Indoor Environments Program, a voluntary, non-regulatory program to address indoor air pollution. The IED has numerous publications and information for the IAQ professional available on its Web site.

Local communities are revising their building and zoning codes to address green building concerns and developing standards. For example, in January, 2007, new green building requirements became a part of the Boston Building Code. These new code requirements mandate that all major new construction and renovation be LEED certifiable.
In a nutshell, here is what every IAQ professional needs to know in order to do the job well and minimize legal risk for any problems that may arise:

1. Be familiar with the law and the emerging national consensus standards that apply to each of your projects. Stay within your area of expertise and be sure that your “expertise” is current.
    
2. Make sure both you and your client understand your contract terms, the scope of work and the standards you have agreed to follow.
    
3. Perform and document your work in a manner consistent with your industry’s practice and the contract.
    
4. As the project progresses, manage the client’s expectations by actively communicating changes and formally documenting how changes will be handled.

William A. Turner, MS, P.E.
Steven M. Caulfield, P.E., CIH
Jeffery H. Harrison, P.E.

As you read this, it is now getting cold in many areas of the United States. In previous issues, we have focused on retro-commissioning efforts to save energy and improve IAQ. Given the increased concerns for global warming, we’ll focus in this article on reducing heating costs and still maintaining good IAQ and moisture control, and mention some impacts heating changes may have on carbon dioxide emissions.

To provide a good learning environment, a building must be reasonably warm when it is cold in the morning, still provide adequate ventilation, and must not blow cold air onto the occupants (create cold drafts). This may sound easy, but when it’s 11 a.m., the sun is shining in the classroom with the window wall and southeast exposure, and the classroom with the northwest exposure is on the same ventilation system, this can be a real challenge.
The ultimate goal is energy efficiency, good indoor air quality, good occupant comfort and productivity, and also reduced carbon dioxide emissions to at least carbon neutral.

Questions to Ask When Trying to Improve Heating Energy Efficiency
Are heating and cooling/ventilation systems fighting each other, and are some areas overheating? Attempting to heat and cool the same air can be very expensive. Occasionally, this is done to dry areas, but there are better ways to do that with a commercial dehumidifier. From a practical perspective, in the autumn, it is important to make sure the heating systems (modulating gas furnaces, modulating heating coils, radiant floors and boilers) are only providing heat when and where it is needed. An inexpensive infrared gun can help you figure this out quickly. Leaving a HOBO data logger in questionable areas can quickly answer questions.

In older school buildings in which the windows and roofs have been upgraded, overheating classrooms can be a big challenge for the facility and maintenance folks. Often, adding insulation to pipes that don’t have it is all that is needed. So long as there are years of future operation left in the piping system, adding heating coils with glycol to ventilation systems on northern-exposure classroom wings can also help, or adding additional heating control valves may be a good answer. In general, uninsulated heating pipes in an insulated school building lead to lots of overheating problems.

We already discussed the need for a light colored roof to assist with effective economizer cooling and reducing microclimate effects on the roof in our previous articles.

One location in which you need to be careful about insulating heating pipes is a crawlspace. In some cases, pipes have been keeping the crawlspace dry for years, keeping mold from growing or wood from decaying.

However, there are likely better means of keeping the crawlspace dry, so certainly consider insulating any heating pipes, but also figure out how to keep the crawlspace from becoming a mold factory.

We have found using sub-membrane exhaust systems in crawlspaces to be very effective in keeping them dry and stopping odors.

Lots of information is now available regarding keeping crawlspaces sealed, warm and dry year-round versus vented, damp and cold.

Adding insulation to buildings or pipes is a great way to reduce emissions that are believed to contribute to global warming.

Are the rooms with vending machines on the north side of the building? Vending machines, even with vend misers installed, still give of lots of heat. Placement in a normally cool area is better than one where there is too much heat already.

Do the roof/wall joints, windows or air intakes leak lots of air at night? This is very important. Uncontrolled air leakage during unoccupied hours is a major source of wasted heat energy in any school, old or new. The National Institute of Science and Technology has just released a report that shows tight buildings would save 60 percent on heating and 25 percent on electricity. Snug-fitting windows, doors and dampers are always an important part of the equation, especially when temperatures are below freezing.

Almost all flat roofs leak air where they joint the top of the wall, unless they have been sealed with foam. Push the insulation in and use orange fire stop foam to seal the gap. The reusable gun should cost $30 – 50 and the foam is about $20 for a large canister. It goes a long way and is much more controllable than hardware store squirt foam.

Are exhaust fans or ventilation systems running when not needed? Most ventilation systems that move air out of or into the building only need to run when the building is occupied. Further, they likely do not need to run at full speed unless there are lots of people present. This can be a tricky topic, but more and more folks are using demand controlled ventilation to reduce over ventilation and excess dryness. These control strategies can either reduce outdoor air damper openings on constant volume systems or control variable speed drives on VAV systems. If carbon dioxide levels are only in the range of 600 ppm in an occupied school building at 11 a.m. during very cold weather, the building is likely getting way too much outdoor air and/or likely has severe air leakage problems that can be found with a few hours of infrared thermography. Areas with high make-up air should be evaluated for any recent change of use that would lower ventilation needs and long term energy recovery opportunities. Moving outdoor air through a building is likely worth about $4 a year per CFM. Reducing overventilation is a great way to reduce global warming contributions.

Can you eliminate odors? Odors need to be found and eliminated. Diluting them is a poor way of controlling sources and wastes energy. Wet, moldy areas should be removed under containment and rebuilt to keep them clean and dry. Spot odors like high-use copiers or laminators should be isolated and locally exhausted.

Are control systems working as intended and are air filters and belts being maintained? Night-time operation usually has a very different objective than the occupied mode. Running systems in the occupied mode for 24 hours because the controls are not operating correctly, or because the building shell is leaky, usually wastes lots of heating and electrical energy. Motors running with loose belts provide poor heating air distribution. Poor or missing air filters (less than MERV 7) mean the owner will be unnecessarily paying for expensive coil and duct cleaning.
What does the thermal envelope look like with an infrared scan? We have mentioned this in previous articles.

However, it is critical regarding heat loss. In any size school building, the most effective means of quickly finding the building envelope air leakages (that cost lots of completely wasted energy use at night during cold weather when the wind is blowing) is with an infrared camera and operator. For likely $1,500 or less on a heating season night, the owner can very quickly locate and digitally record the air/heat leakage holes and any poorly insulated walls for prioritizing “draft stopping.” Uncontrolled air leakage accounts for huge extra costs in heating energy in the winter, causes freeze ups, contributes to dryness problems, wastes significant electrical energy running pumps that move hot water and contributes to global warming.

How inefficient is my combustion for heating in my furnace or boiler? Inefficient combustion equipment needs to be scheduled for eventual replacement. If the building has been insulated since it was built, or window improved at the same time, a qualified professional should be engaged to look at electric savings from installing variable frequency drives on heating pumps and/or fans. Reducing most pump and fan flows by only 20 percent often reduces the electric consumption by 50 percent. Many utilities will help to cover VFD costs. A large school might easily save $10,000 per year in electrical costs.

With the current costs of liquid and gaseous fuels, many heating system improvements may take only three to five years to begin to result in long-term annual savings.

Should I be exploring alternative systems and fuels and is it time to think about geothermal heat pump heating and cooling? “Maybe” is our best answer. In some areas of the United States, wood-fired heating or other biomass fuels may make sense. Many consider wood carbon neutral. However, wood combustion produces about twice the amount of carbon dioxide per BTU as most liquid or gaseous fuels. In many areas, use of geothermal heat pumps, or combining them with solar, may make sense. We have developed a hybrid system we call E-MAX GEOTHERMAL that uses solar and geothermal with often a 10-year simple payback in new construction. This system drastically reduces carbon dioxide emissions.

In all cases, it makes sense to look at the building shell and ventilation systems in considering fuel switching or geothermal retrofits. Reducing the capital costs of new equipment by reducing the load of the building almost always makes long-term economic sense.

William A. Turner, MS, P.E. is president/CEO of Turner Building Science & Design LLC. He has more than 25 years of experience in IAQ/HVAC and energy evaluation and development of solutions for building system problems. Turner supervises a group of engineers, industrial hygienists, commissioning agents and building scientists who serve owners, architects, general contractors and construction managers. Turner can be reached by e-mail at bturner@turnerbuildingscience.com or by phone at (207) 583-4571 ext. 11.

Steven M. Caulfield, P.E., CIH is senior vice president of Turner Building Science & Design LLC. He can be reached by e-mail at scaulfield@turnerbuildingscience.com or by phone at ext. 14.

Jeffery J. Harrison, P.E., is also a senior vice president of Turner Building Science & Design LLC. He can be reached by e-mail at jharrison@turnerbuildingscience.com

Animals consist mostly of water and insects are no exception. Some have a relatively impervious chitinous shell that restricts the evaporation of moisture. Other exoskeletons are less restrictive. These insects require conditions of much higher relative humidity (RH) to survive. In either case, give insects moisture (and food) and they will come. (For the sake of this article, I am going to use the word “insect” as it’s commonly used, rather than its strict biological definition.)

Once, I removed the wooden cover from a sewer clean-out sump in a basement and was amazed to see dozens of large spiders inhabiting cracks and pockets in the gravel and vertical concrete walls of the basement sump. What could all these spiders have been feeding on in this fairly tightly closed environment? A small pond of water, which was a bit unusual to find, sat at the bottom of the sump. The water’s surface was actually moving, or I should say writhing, with what I could see were fly larvae. When I looked carefully, I could see a few sewer flies, which no doubt were destined to become spider fodder. The source of the water was probably the open clean out at the end of the sewer pipe. To check my theory, I asked the homeowner to flush a toilet. Sure enough, after a few loud gurgles, a small tidal wave appeared in the sump.

This little, hidden insect ecosystem was driven by the presence of sewer water, but there are innumerable other insect ecosystems in buildings that are driven by visible, clean liquid water and by invisible water vapor in the air – moisture content and RH.

In one home, I entered the attic in early spring and reached down to touch the insulation in the attic floor. I found I could wring water out of the fibers. Moisture-laden house air was leaking into the attic around the warped, pull-down stair access. Water had been condensing on the cold sheathing in the winter and dripping into the insulation below. Why was the insulation still wet in the spring? The insulation had been installed with the foil vapor barrier on top. The homeowner had been told the vapor barrier was on the wrong side, so he had carefully cut slits in the foil with a razor knife so the house vapor that supposedly diffused through the ceiling could escape. The exact opposite occurred because the slits allowed condensed water to collect in the fiberglass and the foil, which covered most of the surface, slowed evaporation. Still, enough evaporation was occurring to dampen the attic air.

I walked carefully along the floor joists until I got near the opposite end of the attic, where the chimney was exposed. I could see a dark oval stain on the brick, caused by moisture that had condensed on the cooler masonry. There was another large, darker oval on the insulation foil on the floor at the base of the chimney. Curious, I moved closer and peered at the stain. What had looked like a black mat was actually thousands of carpenter ants, basking motionless in the warm, moist attic air, as if they were praying in front of the chimney. I was so horrified, I almost lost my balance and fell. I had images in my mind of toppling over into the insect assemblage, a scene from an Alfred Hitchcock movie! I turned around as carefully and quietly as I could and tiptoed in retreat.

There are other insects that call the attic their home. Rick Brenner, a Florida entomologist, studied a research house in which there were cockroach infestations in the soffits. He installed all kinds of sophisticated monitoring equipment to measure temperature and RH, as well as activity sensors to monitor the feeding of the roaches. The RH and temperature in the soffits were fairly constant, and the roach activity was substantial during the monitoring period, before Brenner installed a soffit ventilation system on one side. As soon as soffit vents were put in place, the temperature and the RH within that soffit fluctuated and the cockroach activity decreased. Eventually, all the roaches moved over to the unventilated soffit at the other side of the attic. Smart little devils!

Brenner also looked at the decay of cockroach allergen in the test structure after it had been vacant for five years. He found that the level of the allergen was still very significant, but that normal house cleaning methods reduced the level of roach allergen to nil. The experiment did illustrate, however, that regardless of present levels of RH and insect activity, the allergenicity of house dust can last for years.

Cockroach allergy is very common among urban dwellers who have asthma, but this allergy is rare in suburban and rural environments. In the past year, however, I’ve worked with two clients who live in rural areas and whose children tested positive to cockroaches in skin prick tests. The parents were amazed, but a recent Platts-Mills paper noted that there is cross-reactivity between cockroach and Asian ladybug antigen. In both my clients’ homes, their children had been exposed to large numbers of these ladybugs, a recently imported pest that often comes indoors to winter. Some people think ladybugs are cute, but I beg to differ.

Unlike cockroaches and ants, which have a hard protective shell, worker termites have a very soft exterior and have no natural defenses against any other predators (carpenter ants consider termites a feast). Termites exposed to the dry air die off fairly rapidly because they lose too much moisture. They therefore live either in the soil, in damp wood or in soil tubes they construct in and on wood or other surfaces. It’s easier for them to excavate wood that is decaying, so it’s no surprise that termites are attracted to the odor of fungi that grow on wood. In fact, termites get some of their essential nutrients from fungi. Termites are also attracted to moisture, so damp wood is more susceptible to termite damage than dry wood is.

A Community of Bugs
Only entomologists (and the occasional oddball like me) are interested in bugs. And there are a lot of different kinds of insects that live in houses. In addition to sewer flies, carpenter ants, termites, Asian ladybugs and cockroaches, there are dust mites, mold-eating mites, silverfish, booklice and spiders, to name a few. Let’s take a look at some of them in greater detail and see how moisture helps them thrive.

Mites
There are a lot of misconceptions about mites. I often hear people say dust mites are everywhere, but this isn’t the case at all. Dust mites require an RH of 70 percent or more to be active (i.e., to masticate, defecate and fornicate – their three activities in life), so they have to live where there’s high humidity. Dust mite infestations are commonly found in beds and in cushioned furniture where people spend a lot of time, sweating and raising the RH of their immediate environs. (As an experiment, I actually slept on a digital hygrometer – the RH in the mattress under my back went up to 80 percent.) Dust mite allergens can find their way into house dust and settle on curtains and between carpet fibers, but the dust mites themselves won’t be in these materials unless the RH is high enough, such as in carpets over crawlspaces, garages and on concrete slabs, or in humid climates. When the RH drops in a bed, the mites gather into large groups below the surface of the mattress or pillow to reduce their rate of evaporation, and they remain motionless until you get back into bed.

There are other kinds of mites whose body parts and fecal material can also be allergenic. Every time I find dust colonized by mold, I find evidence of the presence of mold eating mites. In fact, generally, mold-eating mites are probably more common in homes than house dust mites, whose presence is very localized. And then there are the mite-eating mites, “predator mites,” that gobble up dust mites and mold eating mites. I once found a whole ecology of mites in a dog bed that hadn’t been cleaned in over 10 years and, like a human mattress, was cushioned material that absorbed moisture. Dogs even get asthma, and allergy to mites is common in canines.

Silverfish
It’s common knowledge that dust mites cause allergy and asthma symptoms, but it’s becoming clear that, with long-term exposure, people can become allergic to just about any insect, including the insect’s body parts and droppings.

I was once asked by a man who was renting an apartment to help him get out of his lease. He’d been paying $1,500 a month to rent a condo in which he was unable to spend more than a few minutes without experiencing allergy symptoms.

I took a vacuum dust sample into a Petri dish from the unit’s wall-to-wall carpet and observed the sample with a stereoscope. Before I looked at this sample, I’d examined hundreds of bulk dust samples and seen a live dust mite only once. To my utter amazement, six dust mites crawled out of the dust and sought refuge on the underside of the Petri dish cover. I looked more closely at the dish and could see some violent disturbances in the dust. A silverfish emerged from the dust in pursuit of his prey. Poor mites.

This first-floor condo was located directly above a sandy crawl space that had rivers of roof-drainage water running across the soil surface. There was also a sewer sump present that contained a pond of sewage. In consequence, the moisture content of the wood and carpet above the crawl space was elevated, leading to a bug ecosystem. (Some species of silverfish require high RH – above 75 percent – to be active.)

Grains
Silverfish indoors pose more of a nuisance than an economic threat, but infestations of other insects can cost people money. I’ve already discussed termites and carpenter ants, which thrive in moist conditions and can cause property damage.

Foodstuffs can also be infested by bugs. Some kinds of insects that infest stored grains can be active when the RH is below 60 percent, but mites that eat such stored products require an RH above 60 percent. Mold can also grow in grains when the RH is above 68 percent. For the preservation of the grain, it’s important to prevent insect infestations and mold growth, so keeping the moisture content of grain low during storage is critical.

If the moisture content of one type of barley is 10 percent based on the wet weight, the equilibrium RH will be about 40 percent, whereas if the moisture content of the grain is 14 percent (again, wet, not dry weight basis), the equilibrium RH will be about 70 percent – conditions conducive to insect infestations and mold problems.

Booklice and Other Critters
Booklice are common household pests to which people can become allergic. When the RH is elevated, some species of booklice also infest dried, stored tobacco leaves. Keeping the RH below 70 percent helps control booklice populations in tobacco storage.

Spiders are often at the top of an insect food chain. Lots of spiders present indoors are an indication of an indoor insect ecosystem – all of which is sustained by excessive RH.

Control Moisture
It’s clear from all the above that it’s essential to control RH. Such control involves efforts at both the exterior and interior of a building. At the exterior, roof water should be controlled by a well-maintained gutter system, preferably with subsurface drainage that takes the water away from the foundation to daylight – not into drywells. It goes without saying that any avenues open to water infiltration (roof problems, incorrectly pitched window-cap flashings, gaps and openings leading to the interior, etc.) should be rectified. At the interior of the building, plumbing leaks should be repaired as quickly as possible and moisture sources such as showering and cooking should be vented directly to the exterior – venting moisture into soffits is just not adequate. Below-grade spaces, including finished and unfinished basements, as well as crawl spaces, must be maintained at no more than 50 percent RH (this allows a decent safety margin). For most of the country, this means dehumidification during the summer.

Controlling moisture in buildings means fewer insect pests. Fewer insect pests means less need for pesticides. Reduced pesticide use indoors has both positive economic and health ramifications.

Blue Building
There’s a great deal of talk these days about green building. In such buildings, attention is paid to saving energy and using renewable resources. I want to propose a term, “blue” building, to preserve air quality. Building blue means recognizing that maintaining indoor air quality comes at a cost. Dehumidification is an essential part of blue building practices. In my opinion, pumping conditioned air into a crawl space or using a crawl space as a return plenum is no substitute for dehumidification. Air from crawl spaces should be entirely isolated from house air.

The EPA recently came out with an Energy Star Indoor Air Package, which is full of great specifications for the control of moisture, pests and radon. Unfortunately, these specifications fall short when it comes to crawl space maintenance. Crawl spaces should, the document states (1.6), be “unvented and conditioned ... sealed to prevent outside air infiltration and be provided with conditioned air at a rate not less than 0.02 cfm per square foot of horizontal area ... ” There is no language in the specifications regarding a requirement for dehumidification.

So, house air, full of biodegradable dust (most of which is human skin scales and pet dander when pets are present) will be funneled into the crawl space to collect on walls and floor, where, lacking dehumidification, elevated RH will develop during humid weather, and voila! Mold and insects will move in, leading to indoor air quality problems in the crawl spaces and homes. In the future, duct cleaning will have to include the crawl-space plenum.
As I said in the beginning, give them moisture (and food), and insects will come.

Jeffrey C. May, M.A. is principal scientist of May Indoor Air Investigations LLC in Tyngsborough, Mass. (617-354-1055; www.mayindoorair.com; jeff@mayindoorair.com). He is author of four books on indoor air quality published by the Johns Hopkins University Press, including My Office Is Killing Me: The Sick Building Survival Guide.